Analysis of the Scrolls
Note on Jewish Texts
The Torah in its narrowest definition and in the context of this exhibition, is the first five books of the Hebrew Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh, is composed of three parts which serves as each letter in the Hebrew acronym. Torah is the first five books, Nevi'im are the books of the prophets, and lastly Ketuvim, or the "Writings"; thus TaNaKh.
The Book of Esther is a part of Ketuvim. The holiday of Purim celebrates the survival of the Jewish people from their attempted annihilation by Haman. This story is told in the Book of Esther and as such, the book of Esther is read during the holiday.
Introduction
In order to pinpoint the date and location of production, an analysis was conducted by Mughal, with the help of experts. The methodology of analysis emerges from the field of paleography, “the study of ancient writing and inscriptions; the science or art of deciphering and interpreting historical manuscripts and writing systems,” ¹ and codicology, "the study of manuscript books, including their physical structure, texts, scripts, binding, and other features of their production, and their interrelationships." ²
There are six main types of Hebrew script: Sephardic, Ashkenazic, Oriental, Byzantine, Italian, and Yemenite.³ Within each of these types there are three modes: square, semi-square, and cursive. Above are examples of square script of each of the six types. Malachi Beit-Arié, a highly influential scholar of Hebrew manuscripts, divides these six script types into two branches, the Christian and the Islamic Branch. This division is predicated by which religious group controlled the geographical territory upon which each script type developed. The Islamic group contains Sephardic, Oriental, and Yemenite scripts, while the Christian group contains the Ashkenazic, Byzantine, and Italian scripts. This division can allow us to see the Islamic and Christian influences on the development of the script types. For instance, Oriental script contain features of Islamic calligraphy and Ashkenazic script was largely inspired by Gothic Latin script.⁴
A Brief History on the Development of Each Script Type
- Oriental Script is used by Jewish communities in the East, or Mizrachim. The script was used in places such as, Palestine, Iraq, Iran, etc.⁵ Oriental script's origins can be found in ancient script used in the first century.⁶
- Yemenite Script is an off-shoot of Oriental script used by Mizrachi Jews in Yemen, which emerged as a distinct type in the 13th Century.⁷
- Sephardic Script contrary to its etymology did not emerge in Sefarad, the Hebrew toponym for the Iberian Peninsula but rather was brought to the Peninsula by immigrants from the Maghreb.⁸ From here, Sephardic script expanded to France's Provence and Languedoc, to the southern parts of Italy, and to Sicily.⁹
- Ashkenazic Script was used by the Ashkenazic Jewry in the countries they inhabited such as Germany, northern France, England, and Eastern Europe.¹⁰ This script type was inspired by Gothic Latin.¹¹
- Italian Script emerged as a distinct type in the 13th Century and was predominantly used in central and northern Italy.¹²
- Byzantine Script emerged as a distinctive type in western Turkey and the Balkan regions.¹³ This script type, "displays contrasting features that might have served as a bridge between the two broad branches of script—the Islamic and the Christian."¹⁴
The Location and Date of Origin of HWS' Scrolls
Dr. Jordan Penkower, Professor at Bar Ilan University, and Shlomo Zucker, former Director of the National Library of Israel's Manuscript Department, kindly examined some photographs of the HWS Torah Scroll and in their opinion, the Scroll was written in Sephardic script. Furthermore, Penkower and Zucker believe that the Scroll was probably written during the 16th century in Italy.¹⁵ Dr. Enda Engel, senior researcher at the Hebrew Palaeography Project in Jerusalem confirmed that the Torah Scroll was probably written in the 16th-17th century, but could not confidently confirm upon initial view whether the scroll was written in Italy. ¹⁶
Penkower and Zucker also gave their opinion on the Esther Scroll. In their opinion, the Scroll is written in Sephardic script and they believe it to probably be from 16th Century and written in North Africa. ¹⁷
Analysis
There are a number of key features that can indicate the date and location of creation. I will outline a few as it relates to each scroll including morphology of the script, the writing utensil, type of parchment, and specifically for the Torah Scroll, the layout of the "Song of the Sea" or Exodus 15:1-19.
Song of the Sea
The formatting of the "Song of the Sea" or Exodus 15:1-19, has a distinct layout which is described as a "half brick over whole brick pattern." This formatting rule was established in the Babylonian Talmud, an important and central book as it relates to Jewish law or, halakah. The tractate on formatting is as follows:
“Rabbi Ḥanina bar Pappa said that Rabbi Sheila, a man of the village of Timarta, interpreted a verse homiletically: All of the songs in the Bible are written in the form of a half brick arranged upon a whole brick and a whole brick arranged upon a half brick, [my emphasis] i.e., each line of the song is divided into a stitch of text, referred to as a half brick, which is separated by a blank space, referred to as a whole brick, from the concluding stitch of that line of text.”¹⁸
However, the formatting of the final two lines (29-30) vary based on geographic tradition and can thus serve as an indicator of a Torah's script type and location of creation. In the Ashkenazic tradition, lines 29-30 of Song of the Sea were written in prose, as can be seen in the Parma Scroll above. In contrast, most "Eastern" and Sephardic sources continue the half brick over whole brick pattern of the preceding lines. ¹⁹ This continuation of the half brick over whole brick pattern can be seen in the HWS Torah indicating its Sephardic origin.
Eventually, the Ashkenazic tradition of prose in lines 29-30 was supplanted by the half brick over whole brick tradition due to, "...later decisicors’ opinions that one should follow Maimonides with respect to the sections and the layout of songs, and due to the revolution of the printing press which allowed wide distribution of a given edition.” ²⁰
Writing Utensil
Writing utensils for scroll writing have varied across geographic traditions and can thus serve as an indication of a scroll's provenance. In the Sephardic tradition, the calamus was used, which is "less flexible and less sharp" than the quill used in the Ashkenazic tradition.²¹ The calamus, because of the way in which it was cut, only allowed for a "small difference in the thickness of the horizontal and vertical strokes."²² This difference between thickness and thinness can be observed when comparing features of Sephardic and Ashkenazic texts (see below).
Parchment
Halakhic prescriptions, or Jewish legal codes, surrounding the materials upon which sacred text are written emerge in Maimonides', also known as the Rambam (Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon), Mishneh Torah. Maimonides states:
"There are three kinds of parchment: gvil, klaf and duxustus. They are made as follows: The skin of a sheep, goat, or other animal, is taken, and after removing its hair, is sprinkled with salt and treated with flour and gall-nut resin, or anything that contracts the pores of the hide and makes it durable. This parchment is called gvil.
If the hide had been split, after removing its hair, so as to make it two skins, one thin which was next to the hair, and the other thick which was next to the flesh, and these were treated first with salt, then with flour and gall-nut resin or similar substance, the skin which had been next to the hair is called klaf (outer-skin parchment), and that which had been next to the flesh is called duxustus (inner-skin parchment)."²³
Regional Parchment Practices
There are two sides of parchment, the hair side and the flesh side. In the Ashkenazic tradition, "hides [were] tanned in such a way that prevented completely distinction between the two sides."²⁴ In other traditions, the hair and flesh sides remain distinctive.²⁵ In the HWS Torah Scrolls, the hair and flesh side can be distinguished (see below), thus pointing away from an Ashkenazic origin.
Typically, scrolls produced in North Africa and the Middle East are written on gevil. As stated by Olszowy-Schlanger, "Unlike Torah scrolls from Northern Europe which were most frequently written on parchment (on the flesh side), the extant scrolls from Spain attest to the survival in the Peninsula of the Talmudic and Eastern tradition of scrolls on gevil."²⁶ The HWS Esther Scroll, written on gevil, substantiates the belief that it was written in North Africa or the Middle East.
Dating via Changes in Morphology
In paleography, morphology is defined as, the "Finished, static shape of a letter as it looks, its structure and components."²⁷
The morphology of certain letters can indicate the century in which the manuscripts were produced. In his comparison of script from manuscripts between the 15th and 20th centuries, Mark Farnadi-Jerusálmi found that over time, there were noticeable changes in the Sephardic lamed, gimel, and mem. Using Farnadi-Jerusálmi's findings, Mughal analyzed these letters in the HWS Torah and Esther Scrolls to see if the morphology of the aforementioned letters indicates the dates of production.
Gimel
The changes in the Sephardic gimel (ג) are as follows: “The main change in the Sepharadic gimel is that the joint of line b and c is very smooth, giving the gimel a nun-like shape, looking at them with modern eyes. In the 18th century we already see the joints of b and c we are used to from more modern writings.”²⁸
In comparing the gimels in the HWS Torah and Esther scrolls, with the Montserrat scroll, a significant change cannot be observed.
Lamed
The changes in the Sephardic lamed (ל) are as follows: “The change we can talk about regarding the Sepharadic lamed is, that its “neck”, line a, became shorter after the 16th century.²⁹
The sample lamed from the HWS Esther scroll has a long neck, which indicates its creation during or before the 16th century. The sample lamed from the HWS Torah scroll has a shortened lamed indicating its potential later production. However, during a morphological period of transition, it is difficult to exactly pinpoint when a change occurred and how long it took to make a complete transition.
Mem
The changes in the Sephardic mem (מ) are as follows: “The change that occurred over the centuries to both the Ashkenazic and the Sepharadic mem is that their top line stopped being rounded and became a straight “roof”, that is, a stroke unto itself.” ³⁰
In both the HWS Torah and Esther scrolls, the sample mems are still rounded and not a stroke unto itself. In the Montserrat Torah scroll dated between the 18th and 19th centuries, the roof of the mem becomes flattened and a stroke unto itself.
Another feature of the HWS Torah and Esther scrolls which indicated their divergent origins and production by different scribes early on, was the construction of the Chets in each. This difference is informed by a disagreement between thinkers outlined in the Babylonian Talmud. Rashi, an influential French Rabbi from the 11th century, and the Tosafot, commentators from the 12th-14th centuries who emerged from Rashi's tradition—many of whom were actually his sons-in-law and grandsons—diverged in their interpretation of how the Chet should be constructed. In tractate Menachot, in Seder Kodashim ("Order of Holy Things"), Rashi advocated for a flat roof, while the Tosafot believed that the Chet should be composed of two zayins with a pyramid shaped connector.³¹ This difference in opinion can be seen in the HWS scrolls, the Torah adhering to Rashi's view and the Esther scroll adhering to the Tosafot's view.
Avenues for Further Research
The etz chayim, Hebrew for the Tree of Life, is the term used for the Torah scroll staves. Some scrolls have an inscription on the etz chayim which can indicate information about the date of creation and/or the community or person to whom the scroll belongs. The HWS Scroll has such markings on its etz chayim (see below). The HWS Torah scroll has a qof, gimel, zayin, and bet. With only four Hebrew characters, it would easily be assumed that the inscription indicates the scroll's date of creation. To find the year in Hebrew one adds the numbers together; for instance, qof (100), gimel (7), zayin (3), and bet (2), would equal 112. Hebrew dates always assume the 5,000, so the year would be 5,112 in the Hebrew calendar. That year in the Gregorian calendar is 1351. Therefore, the inscription on the HWS Torah scroll cannot be an indication of the year of production because it is about 150-200 years too early based on the estimated date provided by the experts consulted. The other possibilities for the inscription is the name of congregation or the benefactor who commissioned the scroll. Mughal reached out to the National Library of Israel's Manuscript Department, and the archivists were not familiar with these specific letters on the etz chayim, but confirmed that they could be the initials of the owner or community to which the scroll belonged.³²
Endnotes
1. Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. “palaeography | paleography (n.),” December 2023, https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/6682837272.
2. Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. “codicology (n.),” July 2023, https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/1167132742.
3. Malachi Beit Arie, Hebrew Manuscripts of East and West: Towards a Comparative Codicology, (The British Library, 1992).
4. Edna Engel, "Script, History of Development," in Encyclopedia of Hebrew Language and Lingustics, ed. Geoffrey Khan (Brill, 2013), 485.
5. Engel, "Script," 485.
6. Engel, "Script," 485.
7. Engel, "Script," 485.
8. Engel, "Script," 485.
9. Engel, "Script," 485.
10. Engel, "Script," 485.
11. Engel, "Script," 485.
12. Engel, "Script," 485.
13. Engel, "Script," 485.
14. Engel, "Script," 485.
15. Jordan Penkower and Shlomo Zucker, email to author, September 19, 2024.
16. Edna Engel, email to author, September 24, 2024.
17. Jordan Penkower and Shlomo Zucker, email to author, September 19, 2024.
18. Babylonian Talmud, Megillah 16b n.11 (William Davidson Edition - English).
19. Jordan S. Penkower, “The Ashkenazi Pentateuch Tradition as Reflected in the Efrut Hebrew Bible Codices and Torah Scrolls,” Erfurter Schriften Zur Jüdischen Geschichte 3 (2015): 133.
20. Penkower, “The Ashkenazi Pentateuch Tradition," 141.
21. Ada Yardeni, The Book of Hebrew Script: History, Palaeography, Script Styles, Calligraphy & Design (The British Library and Oak Knoll Press, 2002), 240.
22. Yardeni, The Book of Hebrew Script, 240.
23. Maimonides' Mishneh Torah, Sefer Ahavah 1:6-7, edited by Philip Birnbaum (New York, 1967).
24. Malachi Beit-Arié, Hebrew Codicology: Tentative Typology of Technical Practices Employed in Hebrew Dated Medieval Manuscripts (Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1981), 22.
25. Beit-Arié, "Hebrew Codicology," 26.
26. Judith Olszowy-Schlanger "The Making of the Bologna Scroll: Palaeography and Scribal Traditions," in The Ancient Sefer Torah of Bologna (Brill, 2019), 111.
27. “Glossary of palaeographical concepts Hebrew Palaeography Album,” HebrewPal, https://www.hebrewpalaeography.com/help/1/
28. Mark Farnadi-Jerusálmi, “Paleography of Four Modern Hebrew Scrolls: Analysis of Their Script in View of Earlier Writings” (Master's thesis., Jewish Theological Seminary – University of Jewish Studies, Budapest, 2016), 169.
29. Farnadi-Jerusálmi, “Paleography,” 169.
30. Farnadi-Jerusálmi, “Paleography,” 169.
31. Rashi on Menachot 29b:6.
Tosafot on Menachot 29b:6.
32. National Library of Israel Manuscript and Rare Book Department, email to author, September 24, 2024.